UNIFIL's mandate is renewed annually by the United Nations Security Council; it was most recently extended on 28 August 2024 with the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 2749. It is composed of 10,000 peacekeepers from 46 nations, tasked with helping the Lebanese Army keep the south of the country protected from "unauthorized armed personnel, such as Hezbollah".[2] Its funding is approved on an annual basis by the General Assembly. It had a budget of $474 million for the period July 2018 to June 2019.[3]
Mandate
Dutch UNIFIL base, 1981A Finnish XA-180 in the UNIFIL operation in LebanonFijian soldiers visiting UNIFIL OP during a patrol
Under SC Resolution 1701, UNIFIL's mandate was expanded, giving it new duties:[8]
Monitor the cessation of hostilities.
Accompany and support the Lebanese armed forces as they deploy throughout the South, including along the Blue Line, as Israel withdraws its armed forces from Lebanon.
Coordinate its activities referred to in the preceding paragraph (above) with the Government of Lebanon and the Government of Israel.
Extend its assistance to help ensure humanitarian access to civilian populations and the voluntary and safe return of displaced persons.
Assist the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) in taking steps towards the establishment between the Blue Line and the Litani river of an area free of any armed personnel, assets and weapons other than those of the Government of Lebanon and of UNIFIL deployed in this area.
Assist the Government of Lebanon, at its request, in securing its borders and other entry points to prevent the entry in Lebanon without its consent of arms or related materiel.
In addition, UNIFIL was also authorized to:
take all necessary action in areas of deployment of its forces and as it deems within its capabilities, to ensure that its area of operations is not utilized for hostile activities of any kind, to resist attempts by forceful means to prevent it from discharging its duties under the mandate of the Security Council, and to protect United Nations personnel, facilities, installations and equipment, ensure the security and freedom of movement of United Nations personnel, humanitarian workers and, without prejudice to the responsibility of the Government of Lebanon, to protect civilians under imminent threat of physical violence.[9]
The majority of the force's initial personnel were provided by Canada, Iran and Sweden with support from France, Nepal and Norway. The initial force was established at 4,000 troops. This was increased to 6,000 in May 1978. Israeli forces withdrew from the area on 13 June 1978, after which South Lebanon Army (SLA) forces under Saad Haddad remained in the area. UNIFIL began patrolling operations and established a series of positions including checkpoints, roadblocks and observation posts.[11]
UNIFIL operations during this time were hindered by restrictions that were imposed on its freedom of movement and a lack of co-operation by all parties to the conflict. There were several attacks on its personnel, including ambushes, kidnappings, shelling and sniping. As a result, only limited progress was made in fulfilment of its mandate between 1978 and 1982.[12] During the occupation, UNIFIL's function was mainly to provide humanitarian aid amidst the Lebanese Civil War.[13]
Prior to the 1982 Lebanon War, on 2 January 1982 two Ghanaian soldiers guarding a UNIFIL position were attacked by unidentified persons and one of the soldiers was shot and subsequently died.[14] In February 1982, the force was increased by a further 1,000 troops.[15] During the 1982 Lebanon War, commencing on 6 June 1982, Israeli forces advanced into south Lebanon. Despite being ordered to block the advance, the UN positions were either bypassed or overrun,[16] primarily by the SLA forces under Saad Haddad.[citation needed]
This was the main Lebanese paramilitary force supported by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in Southern Lebanon.[13] The UN force was overwhelmed within a day. At least one Norwegian peacekeeper was killed in the initial attack.[17] Following this, UNIFIL focused primarily on the distribution of aid and medical support, while a new force, the Multinational Force in Lebanon assumed primacy, being deployed in Beirut until being withdrawn in March 1984.[18]
South Lebanon conflict (until 2000)
Beginning in 1985, Israel scaled back its permanent positions in Lebanon, although the IDF maintained some forces in Southern Lebanon, along with the SLA, to establish a security zone to prevent attacks on Israel from Lebanon. These forces were engaged by several groups, including Hezbollah.[19][20]
UNIFIL's role during this time was limited to mainly manning checkpoints and undertaking patrols, as its operations were constrained by the Israeli security zone in the south. Its personnel were attacked by elements on both sides of the conflict during this time, and financial issues also hampered UNIFIL operations as some UN member states withheld funding for the operation. In 1986, the force was reorganised when France decreased its contribution to UNIFIL. There was a proposal to convert the force into a observation group around this time, although this was ultimately rejected.[20]
The period saw an Israel invasion in the 1982 Operation Peace in Galilee and another on a smaller scale in the 1993 Operation Accountability. In 1996 south Lebanon was bombarded by the Israeli army, airforce and navy for seventeen days. According to Amnesty International during the 1996 bombardment UNIFIL compounds and vehicles came under Israeli aircraft or artillery fire 270 times.[21] This included the shelling of the Fijian UNIFIL compound near Qana where 102 villagers sheltering were killed.[20]
In April 2000, Israel notified the UN Secretary General that it was withdrawing from south Lebanon. This process was completed by June 2000. After this, UNIFIL was able to resume its military tasks along the "Blue Line" (the UN identified line of withdrawal for the IDF) and the adjacent areas, where UNIFIL sought to maintain the ceasefire through patrols, observation from fixed positions, and close contact between Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF), as well as providing humanitarian assistance to the local population.[20]
According to UNIFIL press releases, there were dozens of incidents of UN posts coming under fire during the 2006 Lebanon War.[22] In his 21 July 2006 report about the UNIFIL activities 21 January – 18 July 2006, the Secretary-General of the United NationsKofi Annan stated that "Some Hezbollah positions remained in close proximity to United Nations positions, especially in the Hula area, posing a significant security risk to United Nations personnel and equipment."[23]
Combat-related incidents
Italian UN soldiers arriving in Lebanon, 2006
UNIFIL soldiers and staff from the MV Serenade evacuate refugees from Tyre, 20 July 2006On 17 July, a UNIFIL international staff member and his wife were killed when Israeli aircraft bombed the Hosh District of Tyre, Lebanon.
On 23 July, Hezbollah fire wounded an Italian observer.
On 25 July, Hezbollah opened small arms fire at a UNIFIL convoy, forcing it to retreat.
On 25 July, four soldiers from the Ghanaian battalion were lightly injured after an Israeli tank shell hit a UNIFIL position during fighting in Southern Lebanon on 24 July 2006.[24]
Shrapnel from tank shells fired by the IDF seriously wounded an Indian soldier on 16 July 2006.[25]
On 25 July, four UNTSO observers from Austria, Canada, China and Finland were killed by Israeli strikes on an OGL (Observer Group Lebanon) patrol base near Khiam in southern Lebanon. According to the UN, the Israelis stated they were responding to "Hezbollah fire from that vicinity" and the four had taken shelter in a bunker under the post. The area around the site was hit by a precision guided bomb from an Israeli jet and shelled a total of 14 times by Israeli artillery[26] throughout the day despite warning calls made by UN personnel to the IDF.[27] However, General Alain Pellegrini, then commander of UNIFIL, claims that he attempted to call Israeli officials "five or six times", but never got past their secretaries. Later, Israeli artillery shelling resumed as a rescue team tried to clear the rubble.[28]
On 29 July, two Indian soldiers were wounded when their post was damaged during an Israeli airstrike in Southern Lebanon.
On 6 August, a Hezbollah rocket hit the headquarters of the Chinese UNIFIL contingent, wounding three Chinese soldiers.
On 12 August, a Ghanaian soldier was wounded when Israeli artillery shelled the area near the village of Haris.
From August 2006
Visit by Secretary-General
In order to stress the importance of implementing Security Council resolution 1701, UN Secretary-General Annan himself paid a visit to UNIFIL on the ground in August 2006.[19]
Reinforcements
A soldier from the Italian Army stands guard during the UNIFIL mission in Lebanon
By July 2006, UNIFIL's strength had dropped to its lowest, with only 1,980 personnel deployed.[29] Following the cease-fire, UNIFIL received a large number of reinforcements, up to 15,000 men, and heavy equipment. France committed to increase its complement from 400 to 2,000 men and send Leclerc heavy tanks and AMX 30 AuF1 self-propelled artillery,[30] in addition to the forces deployed in Opération Baliste. Italy committed to deploy 3,000 troops,[31] while Qatar offered to send between 200 and 300 troops.[32] As the French were preparing to deploy, French commander of UNIFIL Alain Pellegrini and the country's foreign minister, Philippe Douste-Blazy, stated that France would not intervene to disarm Hezbollah.[33][34]
A naval component of UNIFIL was set up to assist the Lebanese Navy as an interim measure to prevent arms proliferation to Hezbollah while the Lebanese Navy builds its capacity.[35] For a period the force was German-led under the command of a German admiral before handing over to the Italians.[36]
The Indonesian contingent received 12 VAB (Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé) on 17 February 2007, as the part of the second wave of shipments from the agreement between the French and Indonesian governments. Among the equipment sent with the second wave of VABs were 10 tool boxes (pioneering equipment), 10 armored vehicle radio communications units, HMG (Heavy Machine Gun) shooter shields, and 40 water jerrycans.[37]
On 16 March 2009, KRI Diponegoro, an Indonesian Sigma-class corvette joined the UNIFIL Naval Task Force.[38] In August 2010, two Indonesian soldiers were criticized after they escaped from clashes between Israel and Lebanon by fleeing in a taxi.[39]
The Israeli Ambassador to the UN, Ambassador Dan Gillerman, met with UNIFIL commander, Maj.-Gen. Claudio Graziano, on 15 August 2008, after Israel was accused of unilaterally violating United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 by the almost daily overflights of Lebanese airspace, the continued occupation of the village of Ghajar, and Israel's refusal to submit maps of areas on which it dropped cluster munitions during the 2006 Lebanese war.[40]
Following the war, British military historian John Keegan predicted that Israel would in the future invade Lebanon and continue attacking until Hezbollah's system of tunnels and bunkers was completely destroyed, as Israel would not tolerate a "zone of invulnerability" occupied by a sworn enemy, or a double threat posed by Hezbollah and Hamas rockets, and that Israel might first attack the Gaza Strip. Keegan noted that any IDF entry into Southern Lebanon would risk provoking a clash with UNIFIL, but that it is unlikely to deter Israel, as it tends to behave with "extreme ruthlessness" when national survival is at stake.[41]
In 2010, a series of standoffs and clashes erupted between UNIFIL troops and Lebanese villagers in the border region. Villagers accused French peacekeepers of provocative and intrusive patrols, and of taking pictures of people inside their homes. People of Aitaroun town, Marjayoun, accused the French regiments of driving their heavy vehicles through their two-month-old tobacco fields, which support many families. UNIFIL was also accused of having stepped up its patrols and of failing to coordinate with the Lebanese Army.
In July 2010, the most serious incident occurred when the French regiments decided to carry out exercises unilaterally, without Lebanese units or other regiments. When they went into narrow alleys of Lebanese villages some residents first tried to redirect them out of their private areas. The French fired against the civilians, arrested a youth driving a motorcycle, and destroyed the vehicle. When other civilians saw that, they surrounded and attacked the UNIFIL French troops without any weapons.
The vehicles' windows were smashed by stones from dozens of civilians of all ages, and the French commander was wounded. The French troops were forcibly disarmed by the villagers, and weapons were then handed over to the Lebanese Army. The French unit could not explain why they behaved unilaterally. Their ambassador to the UN said the civilian attack "was not spontaneous".
Many troops, including the Finnish, Irish, Qataris and Indonesians pulled out of UNIFIL in 2007–2008. Some of these nations had been there for over 30 years (the Irish and Finnish), and one of the reasons for the withdrawal was reportedly concerns about the changing rules of engagement following the arrival of NATO forces in August 2006 and because of high-level German and French statements expressing unlimited support to the Israeli side.[citation needed]
At the request of the United Nations, 7,000 additional Lebanese soldiers were deployed to South Lebanon as approved by the Lebanese Cabinet.[when?][citation needed]
The 2010 Israel–Lebanon border clash occurred on 3 August 2010. It was the deadliest incident along the border since the devastating 2006 Lebanon War. The UN force stationed in southern Lebanon urged "maximum restraint" following the clashes along the so-called Blue Line, a UN-drawn border separating Lebanon from Israel. UNIFIL peacekeepers were in the area where the clashes took place.[42] United Nations peacekeepers tried to hold off the routine Israeli tree-pruning that led to a deadly border clash with Lebanese soldiers. An Indonesian UN battalion was on the scene, and they did their best to try to prevent it, but they were unable to.[43]
Indonesian peacekeepers tried to no avail to calm the situation before the clashes erupted. The fighting increasingly intensified, so the small contingent of UNIFIL forces was ordered to retreat or find cover then report back to the base. The Indonesian contingent, under intense small arms fire and shelling between the two opposing forces, retreated and returned to their base, but two soldiers fell behind and briefly became isolated before the stunned and exhausted soldiers were helped by some locals.[39]
UN peacekeepers did not escape the confrontation unscathed. Local TV reported that in some cases, villagers attempted to block UNIFIL vehicles from fleeing the combat zone, demanding that they return and fight. However, current and former UNIFIL officials said that at that point in the conflict, it was out of peacekeepers' hands. One former UNIFIL official explained that he has been in these situations before, and when the opposing sides are determined to shoot each other, there is nothing UNIFIL force can do. Regarding concerns about UNIFIL's neutrality, a former UNIFIL commander highlighted the importance of perception, stating that if UNIFIL forces intervened to protect IDF, UNIFIL would be accused by Hezbollah or the Lebanese people of protecting the Israelis. On the other hand, if UNIFIL forces were seen to favour the Lebanese, Israel would accuse UNIFIL of collaborating with Hezbollah.[44]
Post-2006 deployment
UNIFIL base
Post 2006, UNIFIL was deployed throughout Southern Lebanon, south of the Litani River, and primarily along the United Nations-drawn Blue Line, the border between Israel and Lebanon. Since then, the force's activities have centered around monitoring military activity between Hezbollah and the Israeli Defense Forces with the aim of reducing tensions and allaying tension along the border. UNIFIL has played an important role in clearing landmines, assisting displaced persons and providing humanitarian assistance to civilians in the underdeveloped region of Southern Lebanon.[45]
Under UN Security Council Resolution 1701, which passed as a result of the 2006 Lebanon War, its mandate and rules of engagement changed. The mandate changed to allow up to 15,000 personnel in order to assist the Lebanese Armed Forces in deploying in Southern Lebanon to implement the Lebanese government's sovereignty. The rules of engagement changed to allow the troops to open fire in certain cases: mostly in cases of self-defense but also in order to protect civilians, UN personnel and facilities.[46]
The new resolution states that UNIFIL can "take all the necessary action in areas of deployment of its forces, and as it deems with its capabilities, to ensure that its area of operations is not utilized for hostile activities of any kind."[47]
On 27 August 2006, United Nations Secretary-GeneralKofi Annan said that UNIFIL would not intercept arms shipments from Syria, unless requested to do so by Lebanon.[48]
Maritime Task Force
Liberal sailing as flagship of the UNIFIL MTF, 2014
The Maritime Task Force (MTF) is the naval component of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). As of February 2012, the MTF was under the command of
Rear Admiral Wagner Lopes de Moraes Zamith of Brazil.[49] The Brazilian frigate Constituição is the flagship of the fleet comprising vessels from Brazil, Bangladesh, Germany, Greece, Indonesia and Turkey.[49]
After the 2006 Lebanon War, the UNIFIL Maritime Task Force (MTF) was established to assist the Lebanese Naval Forces in preventing the smuggling of illegal shipments in general and armament shipments in particular. With its establishment in October 2006, the force was led by the German Navy which was also the major contributor to the force.[50] The Germans lead the MTF up until 29 February 2008 when they passed control over to EUROMARFOR – a force made up of ships from Portugal, Spain, Italy and France, of which the latter three countries sent vessels to the force in Lebanon.[51][52]
Personnel
C.I.S.S. humanitarian staff with Italian UNIFIL soldiers in LebanonUNIFIL Sisu Pasi in the snow, close to the Israeli border in South-Lebanon, 1998
As of 19 June 2018[update], UNIFIL employed 10,480 military personnel, including 500 women, from 41 countries. It is supported by 239 international civilian staff, including 78 women, and 583 national civilian staff, including 153 women.[53]: 13 It is led by Spanish Major General Aroldo Lázaro Sáenz.[54]
The UNIFIL military component also includes a contingent from Kazakhstan. The Kazakh peacekeeping forces joined the mission for the first time ever in late 2018. A total of 120 soldiers from Kazakhstan were deployed as part of the Indian battalion in Lebanon on 31 October 2018.[55]
In 2019, UNSC resolution 2485 extended the mission's mandate until August 2020 and reduced the troop ceiling from 15,000 to 13,000.[56]
Protecting cultural heritage
In April 2019, the United Nations Interim Force deployed a cultural asset in Lebanon with Blue Shield International. It was shown that cultural property protection (carried out by military and civil specialists) forms the basis for the future peaceful and economic development of a city, region or country in many conflict zones. The need for training and coordination of the military and civilian participants, including the increased involvement of the local population, became apparent especially at World Heritage Sites. The connection between cultural user disruption and causes of flight was explained by the President of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, who stated: "Cultural assets are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often have no prospects anymore and subsequently flee from their homeland."[57][58][59]
Israel and Hezbollah have exchanged fire across the Israel-Lebanon border since 8 October 2023. Hezbollah has fired rockets at targets in Israel, while the IDF has struck targets in Lebanon with artillery and drones.[60]
On the evening of 30 September, the IDF invaded southern Lebanon with approximately 45,000 troops,[64][65][66] while air strikes on Beirut and other targets throughout Lebanon continued.[67][68] UNIFIL forces did not intervene, and remained in their positions.[69][70] On 4 October, IDF told Irish UNIFIL personnel to withdraw from from one of their positions. Representatives of the peacekeeping mission and the Irish government declined.[71]
In the evening of 9 October, IDF soldiers "deliberately fired at and disabled" the video surveillance system at UNP 1-31 base, the lighting system, and a radio repeater at UNP 1-32A base with small arms fire, according to the UN.[72][73] On 10 October 2024, Israeli troops opened fire on three UNIFIL positions in South Lebanon, including UNIFIL's main base at Naqoura.[74] Two Indonesian personnel were injured after an Israeli tank fired on an observation tower.[75][76] The same day, Israel demanded the immediate withdrawal of all UNIFIL personnel located within 5km of the Israeli-Lebanese border (meaning all the mission's positions in South Lebanon).[77][78] Contributing countries to the mission unanimously declined.[78]
On October 11, the IDF again attacked the base at Naqoura. Two Sri Lankan peacekeepers were wounded, one seriously, and the perimeter wall was damaged by an IDF bulldozer.[79] In the evening, the governments of France, Italy and Spain released a joint statement condemning the attacks. The US government also called on Israel not to attack UNIFIL bases.[79] The UN called the attack a "serious development".[80] UNIFIL bases suffered heavy damage in clashes between the IDF and Hezbollah on the evening of 11 October.[81] On 12 October, one Indonesian UNIFIL soldier was injured by Israeli fire.[82]
On 13 October, the mission reported that two IDF Merkava tanks had forced their way inside a UNIFIL position after destroying its gate.[84][85] According to a confidential report prepared by the government of one of UNIFIL's contributing countries that was reviewed by the Financial Times, the Merkava tanks had remained in the base for 45 minutes after UNIFIL objections, but within an hour of their departure, multiple white phosphorus munitions were fired within 100 metres of the base, injuring 15 peacekeepers.[86] Later that day, Israeli attacks on UNIFIL personnel and positions were condemned in a joint statement by 40 countries contributing to the peacekeeping mission.[78] On 20 October, the IDF attacked a UNIFIL base in Marwahin, demolishing an observation tower and perimeter fence with an army bulldozer.[87][88]
On 25 October, UNIFIL said in a statement that one of its observation towers near Dhayra had come under fire from Israeli troops on 22 October when they noticed the peacekeepers observing them "conducting house clearing operations nearby". The mission said that the peacekeepers on duty withdrew from the tower "to avoid being shot"[89][90] On 26 October, UNIFIL spokesperson Andrea Tenenti said the mission's work was continuing, and "We are still present at all our locations, and we mean every one of these sites."[91]
Contributing countries
As of 20 October 2024[update], the total number of personnel in the mission is 10,017:[92]
Previously, the frigateBNS Osman and large patrol craft (LPC)BNS Madhumati were deployed to the mission from 17 May 2010 to 14 June 2014. The frigate BNS Ali Haider and LPC BNS Nirmul were deployed from 14 June 2014 to 2018. The corvetteBNS Bijoy was deployed from 1 January 2018 to August 2020. More than two thousand personnel of the Bangladesh Navy have completed the mission in Lebanon.
The French Army contributed 13 Leclerc main battle tanks in Lebanon[110] to UNIFIL ground forces until February 2007. France also continuously deploys part of their peace keeping operations rotations of French Paratroopers.[111][112] In addition, French Navy ships with 1,700 sailors are deployed off Lebanon in Opération Baliste, and assisting in UNIFIL operations.
One Standard Infantry Battalion of the Indian Army (Regulars), along with support components from the Corps of Engineers (Sappers), Corps of Signals and other logistic Arms and Services
850 men in a mechanized infantry battalion, 75 men in a military police unit, 200 men in a force protection company, 11 men assigned to UNIFIL's headquarters staff, and 111 men aboard KRI Diponegoro (Sigma-class corvette of the Indonesian Navy)
The Irish Army has suffered the most casualties (48 fatalities) in UNIFIL followed by Ghana, France and Fiji since 1978; contributing over 30,000 peacekeepers over a period of 23 years.
The Polish military contingent consists of a maneuver company with KTO Rosomak APCs and HQ staff officers. The Polish contigent is part of the Irish-Polish operational battalion IRISHPOLBATT, which includes a Hungarian unit. In October 2024 150 soldiers of the Polish contingent are waiting to safe return to the country
The only Arab nation to contribute to UNIFIL, deployed 205 soldiers to Lebanon in 2007. They mostly provided humanitarian assistance, and three logistics officers worked at UNIFIL headquarters
Infantry battalion NORBATT, engineering unit NORMAINTCOY, rotary wing force NORAIR, medical unit NORMEDCOY, and naval ships to secure the Lebanese coast and prevent arms smuggling
One company from UNEF II 1978 to establish UNIFIL, one field hospital 1980–1992, one logistics battalion 1986–1994. The Swedish Armed Forces have contributed with 8,148 soldiers and sailors to UNIFIL since 1980
Since its formation, UNIFIL has been repeatedly criticised and condemned as incompetent, ineffectual, "a failure" of the United Nations and "largely meaningless".[155][156][157][158][159]The New Republic reported in October 2006 that,
Our military and W. intelligence sources reveal that Hizballah waited only one day after Israel's final pull-out to set up checkpoints and declare its retaken strongholds with rockets "closed military zones," which neither the Lebanese army nor UN peacekeepers have dared enter.[160]
A former Israeli diplomat, Itamar Rabinovich, criticised the efficacy of UNIFIL, describing it as "a joke" and stating "They've been there for 26 years and since then, there have been so many skirmishes [along the border]."[161] Former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert also said "We didn't like very much UNIFIL which was very useless and very helpless. Look what happened. Did you hear of any particular efforts of the United Nations UNIFIL force in the south of Lebanon to prevent the attacks against Israel in the first place. So they were not useful and that is why we were unhappy with them."[162]
Both Israel and Hezbollah have accused UNIFIL of bias. Israel claims the force has allowed, if not aided, Hezbollah's replenishment of military power. Hezbollah, in turn, alleges that "certain contingents" of UNIFIL are spying for, if not assisting, Israel.[163] During deadly skirmishes between Lebanese and Israeli forces in 2010, UNIFIL was heavily criticized for failing to intervene, with two Indonesian soldiers filmed fleeing the battleground in a taxi.[164]
UNIFIL has responded to the accusations of bias levied by both sides. On 26 July 2006, a former spokesman stated that upon the mission's deployment in 1978, UNIFIL was "accused of being sympathetic to Palestinians", as Hezbollah had not yet been established. "A peacekeeping force does not come here with pre-set enemies. There is no enemy [inaudible] in a peacekeeping force. UNIFIL is a peacekeeping force. It's not an Israeli combat force or an anti-terror force, as they would like it to be. As long as we don't serve their direct interests, they are going to denigrate it as much as they can."[165]
In February 2021, Lebanese journalist and opponent of Hezbollah Lokman Slim was abducted and murdered by Hezbollah while in a UNIFIL-controlled area of Lebanon.[166][167][168] According to the Los Angeles Review of Books,
Lokman Slim was found slumped over in the passenger seat of his Toyota with four bullets to the head and one to the back on February 4. Though his car was found outside Addoussieh in South Lebanon, his phone was retrieved from a field 36 kilometers away in Niha al-Janoub, a village he frequented once a week to have lunch with a friend, a general in the Lebanese Army. That he was kidnapped and murdered but kilometers from the UNIFIL barracks, where around 600 French and 200 Finnish soldiers were stationed, was a message to more than activists.[169]
Israeli concerns
South Korean UNIFIL members performing for local Lebanese in 2012
Among Israel's criticisms of UNIFIL are that it maintains dialogue with Hezbollah, which it views as a terrorist organization, and treats Israeli and Hezbollah violations of UNSC Resolution 1701 equally, while Israel views its violations of Lebanese airspace as less severe than Hezbollah's violations including crossings of the blue line and rocket launches, namely because the presence of Hezbollah in southern Lebanon in and of itself is in violation of Resolution 1701. Israel and its primary allies in the west consider Hezbollah to be a terrorist organization and not a legitimate political party or representative of Lebanon. UNIFIL was accused of complicity in the fatal abduction of IDF soldiers in October 2000, and Israel further blamed it for obstructing its investigation by initially denying the existence of the attack and, upon the leaking of the incident's occurrence, refusing to supply videos for several months.[170][171]
Prior to the July 2006 Lebanon War, Israel had been lobbying for UNIFIL to either take a more active role vis-a-vis Hezbollah—for example, preventing Hezbollah from stationing near UNIFIL posts to fire at the IDF and into northern Israel—or to step out of the region, which would thereby void the Lebanese government's excuse for not deploying Lebanese Armed Forces along the border.[172]
UNIFIL also came under criticism during the 2006 Lebanon War for broadcasting detailed reports of Israeli troop movements, numbers, and positions on their website which "could have exposed Israeli soldiers to grave danger", while making no such reports about Hezbollah. UNIFIL's actions could have been motivated by the fact that Israel was, as a response to Hezbollah rocket fire (which Hezbollah alleges to have been a reaction to Israeli "border violations") and to the kidnapping of Israeli soldiers, conducting a ground invasion of Lebanon at that time. Israel was concerned when it was reported that Indonesia was being considered to replace Italy as commander of UNIFIL's naval force. As Indonesia does not recognize Israel, and the two countries have no diplomatic or military relations, Israel expressed concern that cooperation with the IDF, especially the Israeli Navy, could deteriorate.[173]
A 2010 book published by Norwegian journalist Odd Karsten Tveit revealed that the Norwegian Army was complicit in the escape of two Lebanese men who were arrested by the Israeli Army and being held in Khiam prison. According to the book, in 1992, two detained Lebanese men escaped from Khiam prison. Fearing that they would face torture or execution if caught by the Israel Defense Forces or South Lebanon Army, the soldiers dressed the detainees in UN uniforms, and placed them in a UNIFIL convoy which left Southern Lebanon through Israeli roadblocks. Shortly afterward, Israeli Army commander Moshe Tamir visited the Norwegian battalion's camp, and accused Norwegian commander Hagrup Haukland of "sheltering terrorists". Immediately after the confrontation, the Lebanese men were smuggled onto a bus used by Norwegian peacekeepers on leave, which took them to Beirut.[174]
Hezbollah concerns
Hezbollah supporters have accused UNIFIL of siding with Israel, especially since the passage of Resolution 1701 which they view as one-sided. On 16 October 2006, Lebanon's top Shiite cleric Grand Ayatollah Sayyed Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah declared that the UN force had "come to protect Israel, not Lebanon",[175] echoing the sentiment of the leader of Hezbollah – Sayed Hassan Nasrallah, who previously said "They are ashamed of us, brothers and sisters. They are ashamed of saying they came to defend us, but they talk about defending Israel."[176]
Southern Lebanese reception
A 2004 Easter mass in South Lebanon by the French UNIFIL contingent
In the summer of 2010, relations soured between the French contingent and residents in several villages that led to injuries on both sides, after a French regiment began an exercise to identify Hezbollah members that included searching homes, taking photographs, using sniffer dogs, and questioning residents. Residents accused them of violating private property, treating them with contempt, and of not coordinating with the Lebanese army. The residents made clear that their conflict was only with the French contingent, and that relations with other contingents were good. Following discussions between UNIFIL commanders, ambassadors of countries with soldiers in UNIFIL, and the commander of the Lebanese army, an agreement was reached under which sniffer dogs would no longer be used, UNIFIL soldiers would refrain from entering Lebanese homes and yards, and only Lebanese army soldiers would carry out searches of homes.[163][177]
Generally, relations between UNIFIL and local residents have been good. UNIFIL forces have offered various services to the locals, and have introduced elements of their own culture. India's UNIFIL contingent has carried out small-scale development projects, operates medical and dental clinics, veterinary care for local animals, and also runs entertainment camps for children and yoga classes.[178][179]
The Indonesian UNIFIL contingent (INDOBATT) also gained a good reputation among the South Lebanese people through the Civil Military Coordination (CIMIC) program implemented by the contingent. This program has included many community-based activities, including computer courses for local residents, medical assistance and also technical assistance in rebuilding social facilities.[180][181][182]
The French contingent has taught poetry courses to local Francophone residents as well as French vocabulary and grammar to primary school students in 15 schools, the Italian contingent has given cooking lessons, the South Korean contingent has taught Taekwondo, and the Chinese contingent has taught Tai chi.[183][184]
An official source within the Lebanese government informed Al Jazeera that, despite UNIFIL's shortcomings, the force had been responsible for regularly hosting and mediating negotiations between Lebanese and Israeli forces, helping to defuse tensions.[185] The source also claimed that prior to the mission's deployment in 1978, southern Lebanon was far more chaotic and unstable, and that UNIFIL's departure would lead to an outbreak of more conflict.[185]
Confrontations
Israel
On 22 September 2006, French Air Force jets were seen over the skies of Beirut during Hassan Nasrallah's victory speech, possibly trying to protect him from an Israeli assassination attempt.[citation needed] Nasrallah told the crowd that he had no fear in addressing the masses directly, rather than through armored glass. On 28 September, two Israeli Merkava tanks, an armored bulldozer, and a number of military vehicles entered Lebanon and established a road block 500 meters away from the road leading to Marwahin village.[186][187]
The IDF force asked to advance deeper into Lebanese territory but they were confronted by four United NationsLeclerc tanks operated by French troops, which blocked their advance. The confrontation lasted for half an hour, in which Israeli soldiers confiscated the identity cards of photographers at the scene, claiming they may give pictures of the Israeli military to Hezbollah members. According to American and German correspondents, the French retreated, while the French commander claimed that the Israelis had turned back.[188][189]
Following the war, Hezbollah was widely reported to be rearming with the help of Iran and Syria, which were reportedly smuggling weaponry and munitions into Lebanon to replenish Hezbollah's depleted stocks.[190] Israel accused UNIFIL of failing to prevent Hezbollah's rearmament and thus failing to implement Resolution 1701. The Israeli Air Force began flying reconnaissance sorties over Lebanon to monitor Hezbollah's rearmament, with Israel announcing they would continue until Resolution 1701 was fully implemented. This led to repeated confrontations with UNIFIL.[191]
On 3 October 2006, an Israeli fighter jet penetrated the 2-nautical-mile (3.7 km) defense perimeter of the French Navy frigate Courbet without answering radio calls, triggering a diplomatic incident. Israel apologized after official protests from the French government.[192][193]
On 24 October, six Israeli Air ForceF-16 jets flew over the German Navy intelligence ship Alster, patrolling off Israel's coast just south of the Lebanese border. The German Defense Ministry said that the planes had given off infrared decoys and one of the aircraft had fired two shots into the air, which had not been specifically aimed. The Israeli military said that a German helicopter took off from the vessel without having coordinated this with Israel, and denied vehemently having fired any shots at the vessel and said "as of now" it also had no knowledge of the jets launching flares over it.[194][195][196]
Israeli Defense Minister Amir Peretz telephoned his German counterpart Franz Josef Jung to clarify that "Israel has no intention to carry out any aggressive actions" against the German peacekeeping forces in Lebanon, who are there as part of UNIFIL to enforce an arms embargo against Hezbollah. Germany confirmed the consultations, and that both sides were interested in maintaining good cooperation.[197][198][199] The Alster's crew had recorded several overflights by Israeli jets in the previous weeks, but claimed that the Israeli aircraft had always stayed at high altitude. The week before the incident, Israeli jets had confronted a German naval helicopter, but turned back after the Germans identified themselves.[200]
Shortly after the war, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, reporting to the Security Council, stated that there were no serious incidents or confrontations, but that peacekeepers reported Israeli flyovers "almost on a daily basis".[201] UNIFIL commander Alain Pellegrini claimed that Israeli flyovers violated the cease-fire and Lebanese sovereignty, and warned that if the diplomatic efforts to stop the overflights failed, force might be used to stop them. Israeli military sources reported that Israel would bomb UNIFIL positions if Israeli aircraft were attacked.[202][203] On 23 October, sources in the Israeli defense establishment said that intelligence gathered by the sorties had revealed that Hezbollah was rebuilding its military infrastructure. Israeli Defense Minister Amir Peretz told the cabinet that surveillance flights over Lebanon would continue in light of the fact that arms smuggling between Syria and Lebanon continued.[204]
On 31 October 2006, eight Israeli F-15s flew over many areas of Lebanon, including Beirut.[205][206] The jets also flew over a French position in Lebanon. According to the French Defense MinisterMichele Alliot-Marie, the planes came in at what was interpreted as an attack formation, and the peacekeepers were "two seconds away" from firing at the jets with an anti-aircraft missile.[207][208]
On 6 September, during a European Union meeting in Brussels, the French Defense Minister announced that the Israeli Air Force had stopped mock air attacks over UNIFIL positions. On 17 November, two Israeli F-15s overflew UN positions at low altitude and high speed while two reconnaissance planes circled the headquarters of the French battalion. French peacekeepers responded by readying their anti-aircraft batteries, and warned that Israeli warplanes conducting mock attacks could be fired on.[209]
The IAF continued its reconnaissance flights over Lebanon, and despite strong protests, UNIFIL peacekeeping forces did not follow through on their threats to fire at Israeli aircraft. The Lebanese government reported hundreds of overflights by Israeli aircraft, and also claimed that Israeli troops had illegally crossed the border dozens of times, including into the disputed Shebaa farms area.[210]
On 11 October 2024, IDF fired on UNIFIL positions in southern Lebanon, injuring two peacekeepers after striking a watchtower at UNIFIL’s headquarters in Ras an-Naqoura.[211][212] UNIFIL labeled the attacks as deliberate violations of international humanitarian law. Various international actors, including the US, EU, UK, Italy, France, Spain and Ireland, condemned the attack, calling for accountability and the protection of peacekeepers.[213][214]
Militias
A battle took place on May 9, 1978 in the town of Kaukaba when PLO soldiers attacked Norwegian peacekeepers. The battle took place about six weeks after the first Norwegian troops arrived in Lebanon.[215][216] The skirmish is regarded as one of the hardest battles fought by Norwegian soldiers in the UNIFIL force, and the PLO soldiers got as close as 30 meters. Throughout the skirmish, the Norwegians fired about 200 machine gun shots, 50 shots from automatic weapons and two Carl Gustav RFK grenades. The PLO fired about ten times more shots from hand weapons, as well as eight gun grenades. Eventually the PLO gave up, and pledged not to fire at the Norwegians again. One Norwegian suffered light injuries during the attack. Official PLO casualties were one dead and one wounded. The Norwegian soldiers believed the real number of Palestinians dead to be closer to eight.[216][215]
On 6 April 1980, clashes between UNIFIL peacekeepers and the South Lebanon Army, an Israeli-backed Lebanese militia, began when the SLA attacked Irish troops based in At Tiri. The Irish soldiers held their ground and called in Dutch and Fijian peacekeepers as reinforcements. The battle ended on 12 April when the Dutch contingent employed TOW missiles against the SLA. During the battle, two UNIFIL peacekeepers were killed: Stephen Griffin, a 21-year-old Private from the 46th Irish Battalion, from Rahoon in County Galway, and Sevati Sovonaivalu of the Fijian Army. One SLA soldier, 19-year old Massoud Bazzi, was also killed.[217][218]
On 18 April 1980, two Irish soldiers were killed in the area. In December 2020, a Lebanese military court found ex-militia member Mahmoud Bazzi, brother of Massoud, guilty of the murders of Private Thomas Barrett and Private Derek Smallhorne in April 1980. The court sentenced Bazzi to life in prison. It immediately reduced this sentence to 15 years on the basis of him being aged 76 at the time of conviction.[219]
On 24 June 2007, six UNIFIL soldiers, three Colombians and three Spanish, were killed after their vehicle was hit by an explosive device. Two others, both Spanish, were injured in the incident.[220][221] No group has yet admitted responsibility, although the Israeli military believed the attack was perpetrated by members of al-Qaeda.[222]
Casualties
Fatalities
The entrance to the UN base where four UN peacekeepers were killed during the 2006 conflictLebanon cedar planted in Newbridge, County Kildare, Ireland to commemorate Irish soldiers who died on UN service.
As of 31 July 2024, UNIFIL has had 326 fatalities since 1978.[223] They include the following nationalities:[224]
Unfinished memorial for UNIFIL casualties in Tyre, 2019
Date
Incident
29 March 1978:
A Swedish soldier, Karl-Oscar Johansson was killed and another, Marc Lindoberg, was injured when their vehicle hit a landmine in the vicinity of the Khardala Bridge.[225] Johansson was UNIFIL's first fatality.
1979:
Three Fijian soldiers shot in ambush by PFLP.[226]
16 March 1981:
Three Nigerian soldiers killed in bombardment by SLA artillery.[227]
25 June 1981:
Two Fijian soldiers were killed and one wounded by PLO gunmen. They had been among the nine Fijian soldiers captured by the PFLP in an ambush. Three of them where tortured and ‘executed’ one by one by being shot in the head. One survived.[228][229]
27 October 1982:
An Irish soldier, Private Michael McAleavey, opened fire and killed three other Irish soldiers. He originally claimed they had been killed by Lebanese gunmen, but later admitted the killings, saying he had "snapped" due to dehydration and heat exhaustion. He received a life sentence at court martial, being paroled in 2009.[230]
22 August 1986:
An Irish soldier was killed and two others wounded by a roadside bomb. Two heavily armed men with bomb-making equipment were subsequently caught by a UNIFIL patrol and handed over to Lebanese police.[231]
28 September 1986:
Three French soldiers were killed by a roadside bomb while jogging. UN officials attributed the attack to Shiite fundamentalists, particularly Hezbollah.[232]
20 November 1986:
Three Fijian soldiers and three Lebanese were killed in a suicide car bombing, and three UNIFIL soldiers, two Lebanese civilians, and an SLA soldier were injured. The car, with two occupants inside, had run through a UNIFIL roadblock, apparently aiming for the Israeli border, but after being fired at as it approached an SLA roadblock, it returned to the UNIFIL roadblock, and exploded as Fijian and SLA soldiers approached.[233]
11 January 1987:
An Irish soldier, Corporal Dermot McLoughlin, was killed when an Israeli tank shelled an Irish UNIFIL position. The Israelis had opened fire after spotting a large squad of guerrillas near the position. Two senior Israeli officers were later disciplined over the incident.[234][235]
Three Irish soldiers were killed by a landmine on the road to their outpost near Baraachit. Officers on the ground are reported as believing that the SLA were responsible and that UNIFIL were being deliberately targeted.[238]
19 February 1990:
Two Nepali soldiers were killed and six injured by SLA mortar fire that hit their compound. The SLA and IDF claimed that the fire had come in response to Hezbollah RPG and mortar fire.[239]
3 September 1991:
A Swedish soldier, Kenneth Fransson was killed when he was caught in the middle of a shootout between Palestinians and SLA soldiers in Naqoura.[240]
15 September 1991:
A Swedish soldier was killed and five Swedish and French soldiers were wounded when Palestinian gunmen intending to carry out an attack on the Israeli city of Nahariya en route to their target by boat mistakenly landed in Naqoura and confronted UNIFIL troops. One of the gunmen was also killed and another injured. In a separate incident, two gunmen ambushed a Nepali UNIFIL patrol near Yater, just north of the security zone, killing one soldier and wounding another. One of the gunmen was killed by return fire while the other escaped.[241]
23 February 1993:
A Nepali soldier was killed and another seriously wounded after being caught in an exchange of fire between Hezbollah and the SLA in the vicinity of their post. The UN claimed that they had been killed by SLA shelling, while a senior IDF officer said it was uncertain who was at fault.[242]
27 December 1993:
A Norwegian soldier, Private Gorm Bjørnar Hagen, was killed and another, Lieutenant Øyvind Berg, was wounded when an Israeli tank patrol engaged in a nighttime search for guerrillas mistook a Norwegian UNIFIL unit for enemy fighters and fired three tank shells at them. The Israeli unit subsequently assisted the Norwegian unit and called in a helicopter to airlift the injured soldier to an Israeli hospital.[243][244][245]
20 March 1995:
A Nepali soldier was killed and three others wounded by Israeli shelling near Yater.
18 April 1996:
4 Fijian soldiers were wounded when the headquarters compound of the Fijian battalion of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon in the village of Qana came under fire by Israeli artillery, at the time where more than 800 Lebanese had sought refuge inside the compound in which an estimated 100 persons were killed and a larger number wounded. this incident is known as Qana massacre.[246]
31 May 1999:
An Irish soldier, Pte. William Kedian was killed in an exchange of fire between Hezbollah and the SLA.[247]
9 January 2005:
A French officer was killed and a Swedish officer and a Lebanese civilian were wounded by Israeli shelling that was in retaliation to a Hezbollah attack that killed an Israeli soldier. A Hezbollah fighter was also killed.[248]
25 July 2006:
Four UN observers, one each from Canada, Finland, Austria, and China, were killed in an Israeli airstrike that hit their position in Khiam during the 2006 Lebanon War.[249]
25 September 2006:
A French engineer officer was killed in a road accident near the town of Sofar.
9 March 2007:
Three Belgian soldiers were killed in an armoured vehicle accident.
24 June 2007:
Three Colombian and three Spanish soldiers were killed in a bomb blast between Marjayoun and Khiam.
25 July 2007:
A French soldier was killed near the village of Chamaa while clearing unexploded munitions.
11 October 2007:
A British man, Craig Appleby (36) was killed while clearing munitions near Bint Jbeil.
12 November 2007:
Two French soldiers were wounded as a result of the accidental discharge of a weapon. One of the wounded men subsequently died while being evacuated to Hospital.
15 June 2008:
A Spanish soldier was killed and two injured in a road accident.
3 September 2008:
A Belgian soldier was killed near the village of Aitaroun while clearing munitions left over from the 2006 conflict.
27 May 2011:
Six Italian soldiers were wounded when their VM-90 military truck was destroyed by a roadside bomb near Sidon.[250]
An Irish soldier, Pte. Seán Rooney (23) was killed, and three wounded when their convoy of two armoured vehicles was surrounded by a mob and fired on while en route to Beirut.[252]
UNIFIL reported that a shell landed in its headquarters, the second such incident since the border clashes began.[254] Later that day, a UNIFIL peacekeeper was injured after two mortar shells hit their base near Houla.[255]
30 March 2024:
UNIFIL reported three observers from the UN Truce Supervision Organization and a Lebanese translator were wounded when a shell exploded near them while they were patrolling the southern Lebanese border with Israel.[256] Israel denied reports that it was responsible for the attack.[257]
2 September 2024:
Two people, including an independent contractor working for UNIFIL, were killed during an Israeli airstrike against a vehicle on the Tyre-Naqoura road in Lebanon.[258]
^Novosseloff, Alexandra (2017). "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I)". In Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford University Press. pp. 248, 250–251. ISBN978-0-19-880924-1.
^Novosseloff, Alexandra (2017). "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I)". In Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford University Press. pp. 248, 250–251. ISBN978-0-19-880924-1.
^UN Doc S/15194 of 10 June 1982 Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Interim Force in LebanonArchived 2 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
^Novosseloff, Alexandra (2017). "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I)". In Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford University Press. p. 252. ISBN978-0-19-880924-1.
^Novosseloff, Alexandra (2017). "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I)". In Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford University Press. p. 252. ISBN978-0-19-880924-1.
^Novosseloff, Alexandra (2017). "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I)". In Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford University Press. pp. 252–253. ISBN978-0-19-880924-1.
^ ab"UNIFIL Background". United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon. 9 March 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
^ abcdNovosseloff, Alexandra (2017). "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I)". In Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN978-0-19-880924-1.
^Novosseloff, Alexandra (2017). "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I)". In Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford University Press. p. 249. ISBN978-0-19-880924-1.
^"Crosetto: "Militari italiani in Libano sono nei bunker" [Iranian ballistic missiles on Tel Aviv and Jerusalem | Netanyahu: "Iran made a big mistake and will pay for it" | Tehran warns: "Devastating actions if Israel responds"]. TgCom24 (in Italian). 1 October 2024. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
^Expatica Communications Two Belgian generals to
serve on Lebanon missionexpatica.comArchived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 September 2006.
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^Catalina Musinoi, Anniken Hjertholm Og Ingrid Brissach (18 October 2006). "FN-veteran får million-erstatning" (in Norwegian). adressa.no. Archived from the original on 1 December 2006. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
Bregman, Ahron (2002). Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-28716-6
Bruns, Sebastian (2012). UNIFIL's Maritime Task Force and Germany's Contribution, in: Auftrag Auslandseinsatz. Neueste Militärgeschichte an der Schnittstelle von Geschichtswissenschaft, Politik, Öffentlichkeit und Streitkräften. Im Auftrag des Militärgeschichtlichen Forschungsamtes herausgegeben von Bernhard Chiari, Freiburg i.Br., Berlin, Wien: Rombach, 480 S. (= Neueste Militärgeschichte. Analysen und Studien, 1), 48 Euro, ISBN9783-7930-9694-8.
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